difficile infection, plus the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines(TNF-a, IL-1b, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-12) significantly decreased just after FMT (20407). Furthermore, FMT was reported to restore graftvs.-host illness (GVHD)-induced intestinal dysbiosis, as reported by Spindelboeck et al., in 3 serious acute GVHD sufferers. The restoration of a significantly much more diverse microbiome was observed right after one particular to six FMTs delivered via colonoscopy (206). In PLWH and animal models, FMT might be a viable strategy to restore the intestinal barrier. A single study by Hensley-McBain et al., demonstrated that improved peripheral CD4+ T helper (Th)-17 and -22 frequencies and decreased gut CD4+ CCR1 Formulation T-cell activation happens just after transplantation of wholesome (SIV-negative) rhesus macaque fecal matter to SIV-infected rhesus macaques (185). A pilot study by Vujkovic-Cvijin et al., showed one-time FMT was well-tolerated in ART-treated PLWH and could lead to partial microbial engraftment like an increase of Faecalibacterium (208), which has exhibited antiinflammatory effects in cellular and animal models (209). Furthermore, HSV-1 medchemexpress Serrano-Villar et al. reported that repeated oral FMT capsules triggered long-lasting effects within the recipients’ microbiome, particularly in various members with the Lachnospiraceae family members. A considerable amelioration from the gut damage biomarker I-FABP was also observed inside the FMT group (188). Other tactics to restore intestinal function exist. For example, there may possibly be a role for IL-22-secreting T-cell populations in limiting microbial translocation and systemic inflammation (25). Supplementation of IL-22 may possibly be an effective therapy, and regional IL-22 gene delivery improves intestinal inflammation by enhanced signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) activation inside colonic epithelial cells within the murine model of ulcerative colitis (210). Research by Hendrikx et al. observed that feeding mice engineered bacteria that generate IL-22 increased the expression of smaller intestinal Reg3g and lowered microbial translocation (165). Furthermore, vitamin A and vitamin D are also identified to play a role in sustaining intestinal function. Vitamin A and vitamin D regulate the tight junction protein expression of intestinal tight junction protein 1 (ZO-1), Occludin, and Claudin. Moreover, the maturation of group three innate lymphoid cells (ILC3) that make IL-22 and Treg cells that produce IL-10 also needs vitamin A and vitamin D. Interestingly, alcohol consumption was reported to minimize vitamin A and vitamin D circulating levels (211, 212). Supplementation of vitamin A and/or vitamin D may be a potential therapeutic approach to restore a structurally and functionally intact intestinal barrier (213). The mixture of IL-21 and probiotic therapy increases Th17 cell counts and decreases the marker for microbial translocation in ARTtreated, SIV-infected rhesus macaques (214). Recombinant human IL-7 increases both circulating and gut-residing na e and memory CD4+ T-cells, and decreases plasma levels of sCD14 and D-dimer in HIV-infected people (215, 216). Finally, Mallarino-Haeger et al. reported that the usage of dipyridamole, a blood vessel dilator, in ART-treated PLWH can drastically enhance extracellular adenosine levels, minorly lower plasma I-FABP levels, and have an effect on regulation of gut mucosal immunity (217).Frontiers in Immunology | frontiersin.orgDecember 2021 | Volume 12 | ArticleYan et al.Alcohol Associates HIV Effect GutTABLE 1 | Mic
