Y. The EEG findings in inhibited temperament have been well-covered by several recent reviews (i.e. Fox, 2010; Fox et al., 2005a; Henderson et al., 2014; Kagan et al., 2007; Kagan and Snidman, 2004; Lahat et al., 2011); therefore, we will only briefly summarize those findings here. The early EEG studies in inhibited temperament focused on frontal lobe asymmetry, given a link between right frontal lobe asymmetry and negative Mangafodipir (trisodium) custom synthesis affect and avoidance behaviors (Tomarken et al., 1992, 1990). Right EEG asymmetry was observed in both high reactive infants (C.I. 75535 price Calkins et al., 1996) and in inhibited children (Schmidt et al., 1999). Furthermore, greater right frontal asymmetry at 9 months was associated with children who stayed inhibited from 9 ?48 months (Fox et al., 2001). Together these studies show an association between inhibited temperament and a measure of EEG frontal lobe activity during a rest (“non-task”) state. Later studies used event-related potential (ERP), a measure of cortical activity in response to a stimulus, which is used to test for automatic and voluntary attention (Luck et al., 2000). The earliest ERP study in inhibited temperament tested for differences in auditory novelty detection, as measured by mismatch negativity (MMN; Marshall et al., 2009; ReebSutherland et al., 2009). Infants with an inhibited temperament had larger slow wave ERPs to novel stimuli in regions associated with the orienting network, suggesting that inhibited children have a more sensitive orienting network (Marshall et al., 2009). Inhibited children also had enhanced sensitivity to novelty that was in turn associated heightened risk for anxiety disorders (Reeb-Sutherland et al., 2009). Later ERP studies focused on cognitive control and response to incorrect choices (error-related negativity; ERN). Inhibited children have greater response monitoring and ERN (McDermott et al., 2009) and a follow-up study showed that higher ERN predicted later anxiety disorders and social anxiety symptoms (Lahat et al., 2014). Two recent studies found that among inhibited children, those with greater N2 amplitude, which is associated with more attentional control, had more socialAuthor Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptProg Neurobiol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 April 01.Clauss et al.Pageanxiety symptoms (Henderson, 2010; Lamm et al., 2014). Lamm and colleagues (2014) found that the relationship between inhibited temperament and social anxiety symptoms was moderated by increased activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in cognitive control and the flexible allocation of attention (Ochsner and Gross, 2005); the function of the prefrontal cortex is likely critical for the development of anxiety disorders in inhibited children. While EEG methods provided important early evidence for neural alterations in inhibited temperament, the low spatial resolution and lack of signal from subcortical regions precluded the study of alterations in the amygdala and hypothalamus. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which provides both excellent spatial resolution and whole brain coverage, quickly became the method of choice for studying neural function in inhibited temperament. However, MRI is not without limitations; for example, scanning young children can be challenging. Thus, while the majority of the EEG studies were performed on young children, the vast majori.Y. The EEG findings in inhibited temperament have been well-covered by several recent reviews (i.e. Fox, 2010; Fox et al., 2005a; Henderson et al., 2014; Kagan et al., 2007; Kagan and Snidman, 2004; Lahat et al., 2011); therefore, we will only briefly summarize those findings here. The early EEG studies in inhibited temperament focused on frontal lobe asymmetry, given a link between right frontal lobe asymmetry and negative affect and avoidance behaviors (Tomarken et al., 1992, 1990). Right EEG asymmetry was observed in both high reactive infants (Calkins et al., 1996) and in inhibited children (Schmidt et al., 1999). Furthermore, greater right frontal asymmetry at 9 months was associated with children who stayed inhibited from 9 ?48 months (Fox et al., 2001). Together these studies show an association between inhibited temperament and a measure of EEG frontal lobe activity during a rest (“non-task”) state. Later studies used event-related potential (ERP), a measure of cortical activity in response to a stimulus, which is used to test for automatic and voluntary attention (Luck et al., 2000). The earliest ERP study in inhibited temperament tested for differences in auditory novelty detection, as measured by mismatch negativity (MMN; Marshall et al., 2009; ReebSutherland et al., 2009). Infants with an inhibited temperament had larger slow wave ERPs to novel stimuli in regions associated with the orienting network, suggesting that inhibited children have a more sensitive orienting network (Marshall et al., 2009). Inhibited children also had enhanced sensitivity to novelty that was in turn associated heightened risk for anxiety disorders (Reeb-Sutherland et al., 2009). Later ERP studies focused on cognitive control and response to incorrect choices (error-related negativity; ERN). Inhibited children have greater response monitoring and ERN (McDermott et al., 2009) and a follow-up study showed that higher ERN predicted later anxiety disorders and social anxiety symptoms (Lahat et al., 2014). Two recent studies found that among inhibited children, those with greater N2 amplitude, which is associated with more attentional control, had more socialAuthor Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptProg Neurobiol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 April 01.Clauss et al.Pageanxiety symptoms (Henderson, 2010; Lamm et al., 2014). Lamm and colleagues (2014) found that the relationship between inhibited temperament and social anxiety symptoms was moderated by increased activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in cognitive control and the flexible allocation of attention (Ochsner and Gross, 2005); the function of the prefrontal cortex is likely critical for the development of anxiety disorders in inhibited children. While EEG methods provided important early evidence for neural alterations in inhibited temperament, the low spatial resolution and lack of signal from subcortical regions precluded the study of alterations in the amygdala and hypothalamus. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which provides both excellent spatial resolution and whole brain coverage, quickly became the method of choice for studying neural function in inhibited temperament. However, MRI is not without limitations; for example, scanning young children can be challenging. Thus, while the majority of the EEG studies were performed on young children, the vast majori.
