E missed. The sensitivity of the model showed very little dependency on genome G+C composition in all cases (Figure 4). We then searched for attC sites in sequences annotated for the get Eliglustat presence of integrons in INTEGRALL (Supplemen-Nucleic Acids eFT508 biological activity Research, 2016, Vol. 44, No. 10the analysis of the broader phylogenetic tree of tyrosine recombinases (Supplementary Figure S1), this extends and confirms previous analyses (1,7,22,59): fnhum.2014.00074 (i) The XerC and XerD sequences are close outgroups. (ii) The IntI are monophyletic. (iii) Within IntI, there are early splits, first for a clade including class 5 integrons, and then for Vibrio superintegrons. On the other hand, a group of integrons displaying an integron-integrase in the same orientation as the attC sites (inverted integron-integrase group) was previously described as a monophyletic group (7), but in our analysis it was clearly paraphyletic (Supplementary Figure S2, column F). Notably, in addition to the previously identified inverted integron-integrase group of certain Treponema spp., a class 1 integron present in the genome of Acinetobacter baumannii 1656-2 had an inverted integron-integrase. Integrons in bacterial genomes We built a program��IntegronFinder��to identify integrons in DNA sequences. This program searches for intI genes and attC sites, clusters them in function of their colocalization and then annotates cassettes and other accessory genetic elements (see Figure 3 and Methods). The use of this program led to the identification of 215 IntI and 4597 attC sites in complete bacterial genomes. The combination of this data resulted in a dataset of 164 complete integrons, 51 In0 and 279 CALIN elements (see Figure 1 for their description). The observed abundance of complete integrons is compatible with previous data (7). While most genomes encoded a single integron-integrase, we found 36 genomes encoding more than one, suggesting that multiple integrons are relatively frequent (20 of genomes encoding integrons). Interestingly, while the literature on antibiotic resistance often reports the presence of integrons in plasmids, we only found 24 integrons with integron-integrase (20 complete integrons, 4 In0) among the 2006 plasmids of complete genomes. All but one of these integrons were of class 1 srep39151 (96 ). The taxonomic distribution of integrons was very heterogeneous (Figure 5 and Supplementary Figure S6). Some clades contained many elements. The foremost clade was the -Proteobacteria among which 20 of the genomes encoded at least one complete integron. This is almost four times as much as expected given the average frequency of these elements (6 , 2 test in a contingency table, P < 0.001). The -Proteobacteria also encoded numerous integrons (10 of the genomes). In contrast, all the genomes of Firmicutes, Tenericutes and Actinobacteria lacked complete integrons. Furthermore, all 243 genomes of -Proteobacteria, the sister-clade of and -Proteobacteria, were devoid of complete integrons, In0 and CALIN elements. Interestingly, much more distantly related bacteria such as Spirochaetes, Chlorobi, Chloroflexi, Verrucomicrobia and Cyanobacteria encoded integrons (Figure 5 and Supplementary Figure S6). The complete lack of integrons in one large phylum of Proteobacteria is thus very intriguing. We searched for genes encoding antibiotic resistance in integron cassettes (see Methods). We identified such genes in 105 cassettes, i.e., in 3 of all cassettes from complete integrons (3116 cassettes). Most re.E missed. The sensitivity of the model showed very little dependency on genome G+C composition in all cases (Figure 4). We then searched for attC sites in sequences annotated for the presence of integrons in INTEGRALL (Supplemen-Nucleic Acids Research, 2016, Vol. 44, No. 10the analysis of the broader phylogenetic tree of tyrosine recombinases (Supplementary Figure S1), this extends and confirms previous analyses (1,7,22,59): fnhum.2014.00074 (i) The XerC and XerD sequences are close outgroups. (ii) The IntI are monophyletic. (iii) Within IntI, there are early splits, first for a clade including class 5 integrons, and then for Vibrio superintegrons. On the other hand, a group of integrons displaying an integron-integrase in the same orientation as the attC sites (inverted integron-integrase group) was previously described as a monophyletic group (7), but in our analysis it was clearly paraphyletic (Supplementary Figure S2, column F). Notably, in addition to the previously identified inverted integron-integrase group of certain Treponema spp., a class 1 integron present in the genome of Acinetobacter baumannii 1656-2 had an inverted integron-integrase. Integrons in bacterial genomes We built a program��IntegronFinder��to identify integrons in DNA sequences. This program searches for intI genes and attC sites, clusters them in function of their colocalization and then annotates cassettes and other accessory genetic elements (see Figure 3 and Methods). The use of this program led to the identification of 215 IntI and 4597 attC sites in complete bacterial genomes. The combination of this data resulted in a dataset of 164 complete integrons, 51 In0 and 279 CALIN elements (see Figure 1 for their description). The observed abundance of complete integrons is compatible with previous data (7). While most genomes encoded a single integron-integrase, we found 36 genomes encoding more than one, suggesting that multiple integrons are relatively frequent (20 of genomes encoding integrons). Interestingly, while the literature on antibiotic resistance often reports the presence of integrons in plasmids, we only found 24 integrons with integron-integrase (20 complete integrons, 4 In0) among the 2006 plasmids of complete genomes. All but one of these integrons were of class 1 srep39151 (96 ). The taxonomic distribution of integrons was very heterogeneous (Figure 5 and Supplementary Figure S6). Some clades contained many elements. The foremost clade was the -Proteobacteria among which 20 of the genomes encoded at least one complete integron. This is almost four times as much as expected given the average frequency of these elements (6 , 2 test in a contingency table, P < 0.001). The -Proteobacteria also encoded numerous integrons (10 of the genomes). In contrast, all the genomes of Firmicutes, Tenericutes and Actinobacteria lacked complete integrons. Furthermore, all 243 genomes of -Proteobacteria, the sister-clade of and -Proteobacteria, were devoid of complete integrons, In0 and CALIN elements. Interestingly, much more distantly related bacteria such as Spirochaetes, Chlorobi, Chloroflexi, Verrucomicrobia and Cyanobacteria encoded integrons (Figure 5 and Supplementary Figure S6). The complete lack of integrons in one large phylum of Proteobacteria is thus very intriguing. We searched for genes encoding antibiotic resistance in integron cassettes (see Methods). We identified such genes in 105 cassettes, i.e., in 3 of all cassettes from complete integrons (3116 cassettes). Most re.
